. Collected reprints / Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratories [and] Pacific Oceanographic Laboratories. Oceanography Periodicals.. Passive Microwave Detection 22-33 PACIFIC OCEAN. Figure 22.31 Average distribution of sea-surface salinity for the Pacific Ocean in parts per thousand (after Muromtsev, 1963). 22.2.4.2 Foam The emissivity of foam is much higher than that of the sea surface. This was first suggested by Williams (1969) based on experimental data, and was supported theoretically on the basis of a physical model for foam by Droppleman (1970). Recent experimental data, r
![. Collected reprints / Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratories [and] Pacific Oceanographic Laboratories. Oceanography Periodicals.. Passive Microwave Detection 22-33 PACIFIC OCEAN. Figure 22.31 Average distribution of sea-surface salinity for the Pacific Ocean in parts per thousand (after Muromtsev, 1963). 22.2.4.2 Foam The emissivity of foam is much higher than that of the sea surface. This was first suggested by Williams (1969) based on experimental data, and was supported theoretically on the basis of a physical model for foam by Droppleman (1970). Recent experimental data, r Stock Photo](https://c8.alamy.com/comp/REH21D/collected-reprints-atlantic-oceanographic-and-meteorological-laboratories-and-pacific-oceanographic-laboratories-oceanography-periodicals-passive-microwave-detection-22-33-pacific-ocean-figure-2231-average-distribution-of-sea-surface-salinity-for-the-pacific-ocean-in-parts-per-thousand-after-muromtsev-1963-22242-foam-the-emissivity-of-foam-is-much-higher-than-that-of-the-sea-surface-this-was-first-suggested-by-williams-1969-based-on-experimental-data-and-was-supported-theoretically-on-the-basis-of-a-physical-model-for-foam-by-droppleman-1970-recent-experimental-data-r-REH21D.jpg)
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. Collected reprints / Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratories [and] Pacific Oceanographic Laboratories. Oceanography Periodicals.. Passive Microwave Detection 22-33 PACIFIC OCEAN. Figure 22.31 Average distribution of sea-surface salinity for the Pacific Ocean in parts per thousand (after Muromtsev, 1963). 22.2.4.2 Foam The emissivity of foam is much higher than that of the sea surface. This was first suggested by Williams (1969) based on experimental data, and was supported theoretically on the basis of a physical model for foam by Droppleman (1970). Recent experimental data, reported by Ross et al. (1970) and Nordberg et al. (1971), indicate that over typical oceanic whitecaps the brightness temperature may by 100 °K higher than over adjacent foam-free ocean areas. Such a temperature anomaly indicates that foam may act as both an error source for molecular temperature measurement and a possible useful indicator of wind speed. Both theoretical and experimental studies show there is a significant increase in whitecap coverage and spray density, beginning at 6-7 ms-1 (Monahan 1969, and Cardone, 1969). Similarly, the aircraft microwave radiometer data by Nordberg, et al. (1971) suggest a significant increase in microwave brightness temperature begins at about 6-7 ms-1. They used a horizontally polarized 19.34 GHz radiometer and from a time series of measurements were able to show an increase in brightness temperature as a function of wind speed for speeds of 7 ms-1 the increase in brightness temperature is due to an increase in foam coverage. It is apparent from their study that a determination of foam coverage is critical because only a few percent foam coverage can cause brightness temperature anomalies of about 2 °K. The natural variation in foam coverage on a global scale has been investigated by Blanchard (1963) and is shown in (F22.35). In the tropics and mid-latitudes one would expect 2 percent or more foam coverage in both summer and winter, b